Month: April 2014

Week 14: The Beginnings of a Global Society

Personally, I found this week’s reading to be very interesting and thought provoking. Peter Singer, in chapters five and six of his book One World, discusses the idea of poverty in a global context and, more deeply, how we begin to form a global ethic and morality which seeks to protect and care for those who have been the least benefitted by globalization and capitalism. More often than not, as humans have progress from one era to the next, these changes have historically been marked by initial suffering and exploitation and followed by the development of institutions and principles viewed as necessary to overcome those evils. Typically (at least from what I’ve observed), our institutions are always reacting to changes in society. In this regard, globalization is no different. Right now many people around the globe have been plunged in to poverty and debt due to unrestrained global practices through which our previous unit of regulation, the nation-state, cannot compete.

Singer picks up on this debate with his discussion on poverty and whether or not we in the global north owe some obligation to assist those societies that have not been so fortunate in the south. Reading through the arguments of impartiality and morality, he begins to set forth the early arguments for global institutions and practices toward mitigating and eliminating poverty. For him, the fact that there are people who spend countless sums on unneeded frivolities while others literally starve and die from preventable conditions is unacceptable under any circumstances. The fact that conditions of concentrated wealth and costly poverty are completely connected to globalization and, with how interconnected all of our fates are to this system, requires us to care about those on our planet living in abject poverty. To do this will ultimately require us to let go of notions of the nation state as many of the processes occurring today go beyond them. Instead, we should be thinking about how our actions affect other people everywhere on the planet.

One flaw (to me) in his argument to me was his focus on nations in presenting solutions to poverty. He presents this great argument towards ending poverty around the world but then present a solution that is still couched in the ideas of nation states. This is not to erase the fact that abject poverty is greatly concentrated in the global south but to say that it is not necessarily been eliminated from pockets of the global north. To say that everyone in the developed world is rich is to ignore those folks who are homeless and often die from common ailments such as toothaches and malnourishment (especially in the US). It would seem to me that to apply a global solution would require us to view ourselves as global citizens and then take care of other based upon our need, not necessarily what the perceived economic identity of their society is.

Week 15: Impartiality and Global Ethics

According to Singer, we need to examine and deconstruct the ethics of generosity. He argues that our generous actions are typically defined and limited by cultural and political boundaries, with our strongest preferences for immediate family—children, spouses—followed by friends, neighbors and fellow countrymen.

Instead of this typical understanding of generosity, Singer believes that we need to adopt a philosophy of impartiality.  An ethical foundation based on impartiality treats the value of human life equally across the planet. This kind of worldview is necessary, argues Singer, in a globalized era where distance and nations are of diminished importance. He makes two major arguments, as far as I can tell, for adopting an impartial ethic: 1) Geographic distance or relational proximity should not be determining factors for helping others and 2) the problems of poverty, hunger, and other unfulfilled basic needs are so grave in some parts of the world that we are morally required to help. With the governments of developed countries (especially the US) apparently unwilling to meet their own foreign assistance goals, Singer calls for citizens with disposable income to donate as much as they can to organizations working for the global poor.

While I think Singer makes an effective logical argument for reexamining our ethical foundations, he fails to properly recognize the significant obstacles to achieving such a significant ethical shift. I would imagine that an impartial worldview that appears to diminish the importance of familial relationships will be met with significant cultural resistance. I also think he doesn’t acknowledge the difficulty in maintaining an impartial worldview when the beneficiaries of our generosity live half a world away. The power of his moral reasoning alone is not necessarily enough to stay invested in the lives of the unseen global poor. 

Week 15: Ethics of Globalization

Overall, I really did not like Singer’s tone. It may be because this is an ethical issue and it feels as though Singer is blaming me (and others) for feeling a certain way or not taking actions. His writing is very personal and “in-your-face.” He treats his opinion as an undeniable truth.

I agree that there should be more foreign aid, more actions to help right the wrongs that early developed countries have intentionally or unintentionally committed, and that we should consider ourselves to be global citizens. But, I think it is unreasonable to say it is wrong for people to take care of their immediate communities first.

On page 174, Singer writes, “…if we live in a rich nation, we could reduce equality within our own society even further if we used the revenue generated by taxes on the wealthiest people within our own society to help the worst-off…” Did I miss something, or does he mean “inequality?” I personally think reducing inequality within societies makes sense. I have not done the research to confirm, but I believe studies have shown that people are happier even if they are with less wealth but are with others with less wealth. To me, happiness is more important than wealth. I understand wealth contributes to happiness, too, especially in terms of being able to provide adequate health care.

Singer’s proposal for a policy encouraging those with disposable incomes to pay 1% of their income to those in need is interesting. I think it’s a good idea, but I’m not sure how it would actually work if it is optional. Singer continues to give shame to those that would donate according to his proposed policy, saying that they should be giving more and they are no moral heroes.

Assignment 3: New York and Globalization

As of the busiest and widely known cities in the world, New York is generally what typifies our notions of what city life looks like. The city has always been a space that diverse immigrant groups, both domestic and foreign, have made home and where many movements and event important to our American identity and culture have first surfaced. While most think about the city as being merely the historical setting for urban phenomena and societal forces such as violence, poverty, protests and liberation; cities themselves are not exempt from this. As was first stated by Paul Knox, cities are not only the setting for the many phenomena that affect our lives but they themselves are nothing more than a physical reflection of these forces. New York is no different and has undergone dramatic changes as a result of capitalism and its shift from a national to a transnational, or global, phase.

1934 – National Housing Act is passed. This leads to the formation of the Federal Housing Administration, created with the goal of reviving the housing industry post Great Depression (Hevesi 2004).

1934 – Newly Elected Mayor Fiorello La Guardia Appoints Robert Moses to be Commissioner of the Department of Parks and member of the Triborough Bridge Authority (Columbia University, 2014)

1946 – Robert Moses begins his campaign to renew New York through new bridges, freeways, and slum clearance (Columbia University, 2014).This era (1946-1960) saw the construction of the United Nations, the Cross Bronx Expressway, the Belt Parkway, and many of the city’s slum clearance projects (Sarachan 2014). These projects made it much more feasible for residents to commute into the city from the outer suburbs (Columbia University, 2014).

1950-1970 – National period of rapid suburban growth begins. This trend was supported by the demand for housing post World War II and the policy changes levied by the Federal Housing Administration concerning home lending (Hevesi 2004)

1951 – The first Levittown Community is finished. “Located on Long Island, the first Levittown community was completed in 1951 and contained more than 17,000 homes—making Levittown the nation’s largest housing development constructed by a single builder” (Hevesi 2004, 5). Through use of mass production and constrained options, the Levitt & Sons construction company ushered in a new era of affordable housing for middle class families away from the city (Hevesi 2004).

Levittown Postcard (Source, http://www.capitalcentury.com/levittown.jpg)

Levittown Postcard (Source, http://www.capitalcentury.com/levittown.jpg)

1961 – City begins to run annual financial deficits as public employees unions strike, middle class families steadily move to suburban developments, and increasing rent controls slow the growth of tax revenues (Dunstan 1995). City begins borrowing to pay for expanded city support services and employee contracts (Dunstan 1995). These services included the “city’s nineteen public hospitals, extensive mass transit and public housing, public daycare and decent schools, and its municipal university system—the only one of its kind in the country—provided higher education to all, free of charge” (Phillips-Fein 2013).

1970 – Deterioration of city’s financial stability grows as the living conditions for poor New Yorkers worsens. “Between 1970 and 1980, the number of poor people in New York City increased by 20% even as the city’s population declined by 10%” (Freudenberg et. al. 2006). During this time, people were also displaced from their homes due to things such as landlord abandonment and arson (Freudenberg et. al. 2006). Deterioration of the urban environment encouraged continued suburban abandonment of the city both by families and corporate decision makers and further loss of tax revenues (Freudenberg et. al. 2006).

1971 – NASDAQ is established as the world’s first electronic stock exchange (Terrell 2012)

Newspaper Headline during Financial Crisis (Source, http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2006/12/28/nyregion/28veto_lg.jpg)

Newspaper Headline during Financial Crisis (Source, http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2006/12/28/nyregion/28veto_lg.jpg)

1975 – City financial crisis sends New York toward the brink of bankruptcy. After what many viewed to be years of borrowing to support the great society era social welfare programs of the city, banks bar the city for borrowing any more funding (Freudenberg et. al. 2006; Phillips-Fein 2013). Additionally, under President Ford, the city was told that no federal assistance would be provided for the city (Freudenberg et. al. 2006; Phillips-Fein 2013). In order to avoid bankruptcy, New York comes under control of an Emergency Financial Control Board (EFCB) responsible for balancing the city’s budget so that it could once again borrow money from public creditors (Freudenberg et. al. 2006). This is accomplished via cuts to all city services and reductions in city employment (Freudenberg et. al. 2006).

1976 – The city loses 468,000 manufacturing jobs between 1970-1976. Additionally, one in five public sector jobs had been lost by 1980, eliminating two of the traditional means of exiting poverty (Freudenberg et. al. 2006).

1981 – Cuts under the EFCB begin to take their toll on the city. The Wall Street Journal writes, “Basic city services, once the model for urban areas across the nation, have been slashed to the point of breakdown. Evidence of the cutbacks is everywhere: The streets are blanketed with garbage. Robberies, to name one crime, are at an all-time high. The subway system is near collapse, plagued by aging equipment, vandalism, and frequent breakdowns and derailments” (Freudenberg et. al. 2006).

1981 – “New York City was able to reenter the public credit market and all subsequent city budgets have met the legal requirement for a balanced budget” (Freudenberg et.al. 2006)

1987 – Producer services careers (such as finance, Insurance, and Real Estate) account for 37.5 percent of job growth. Manufacturing and Transport jobs continue to fall by 22 percent and 20 percent respectively (Sassen 2012)

1991 – The Internet first becomes available for public use (Bryant 2011)

1994 – The Disney Corporation announces that it will purchase and rehabilitate Times Square’s New Amsterdam Theater (Martin 1994)

1990-1999 – Wall Street accounts for 70 percent of the city’s output growth. This is in comparison to the 1980 when Wall Street only accounted for 18 percent (Fiscal Policy Institute 2002)

1997-1999 – The city experiences record levels of private sector job creation. However, this newfound prosperity is concentrated at the upper levels of the income spectrum (Fiscal Policy Institute 1999)

1990-2000 – City’s foreign-born population grows by 38 percent to 2.9 million (Dept. of City Planning 2014)

2002-2013 – Michael Bloomberg is elected mayor of the city. During his term in office, he oversaw massive city rezoning and construction, the creation of new parks such as the high line, updating of building codes to protect the city from future storms like Hurricane Sandy, expanded bike lanes, and the introduction of the Citi-bike Bike Share system. He also oversaw an expansion of the city’s homeless population, expanded income inequality, and the implementation of the “Stop and Frisk” policing practice. (NY Times Editorial Board 2013)

2008 – “U.S. exported legal services worth $7.3 billion; much of this is attributed to firms based in New York City” (Levin Institute 2011 2)

2005-2009 – “The international revenue of New York [architecture] firms grew 84 percent. As of 2009, 39 percent of revenue of New York City architecture firms was from overseas projects.” (Levin Institute 2011 2)

2011 – More than 800 fashion design and merchandising companies have their headquarters in New York; more than double the number in Paris” (Levin Institute 2011 3)

2010-2013 – City continues trend net gains in resident migration for third consecutive year. This represents the city’s first solid population growth trend since the late 1940s/early 1950s. (Roberts 2014)

 

Sources

Hevesi, Alan G. 2004. Population Trends in New York State’s Cities. In Local Government Issues in Focus. Albany: Division of Local Government Services and Economic Development.

Levin Institute. 2011. New York in the World – Executive Summary. New York: State University of New York.

Fiscal Policy Institute. 2002. Learning from the 90s: How poor public choices contributed to income erosion in New York City, and what we can do to chart an effective course out of the current downturn. New York: Fiscal Policy Institute.

Dunstan, Roger. 1995. Overview of New York City’s Financial Crisis. Sacramento: California State Library.

Columbia University. 2014. “Robert Moses and the Modern City.” Columbia University. http://www.learn.columbia.edu/moses/.

Phillips-Fein, Kim. 2013. “The Legacy of the 1970s Fiscal Crisis.” The Nation.

Sarachan, Sydney. 2013. The Legacy of Robert Moses. PBS.

Freudenberg, Nicholas, Marianne Fahs, Sandro Galea, and Andrew Greenberg. 2006. “The Impact of New York City’s 1975 Fiscal Crisis on the Tuberculosis, HIV, and Homicide Syndemic.” American Journal of Public Health 96 (3):10.

Terrell, Ellen. 2012. “History of the American and NASDAQ Stock Exchanges – Selected References.” Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/business/amex/amex.html.

Martin, Douglas. 1993. “Disney Seals Times Square Theater Deal.” New York Times, February 3, B. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/03/nyregion/disney-seals-times-square-theater-deal.html.

Board, Times Editorial. 2013. “12 Years of Mayor Bloomberg.” New York Times, 18, SR. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/29/opinion/sunday/12-years-of-mayor-bloomberg.html.

Planning, Department of City. 2014. The Newest New Yorkers – 2000 Edition – Executive Summary. In POPULATION. New York: City of New York.

Roberts, Sam. 2014. “Population Growth in New York City Is Reversing Decades-Old Trend, Estimates Show.” New York Times, 26, A. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/nyregion/population-growth-in-new-york-city-is-reversing-decades-old-trend-estimates-show.html.

Sassen, Saskia. 2012. Cities in a World Economy. United States: Sage.

 

 

Cape Town’s Globalization History

1488 – Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Portuguese explorer, Bartolomeu Dias. His crew was on the mission to chart the entire African continent. Since the Cape is a halfway point of a long voyage between the West and East, it was a logical place for sailors to stop. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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The Cape of Good Hope. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1497 – Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese explorer, picked up where Dias left off, following the route all the way to India, opening up a sea route for the spice trade. The discovery of the Cape route invited trade into Southern Africa, bringing a completely new set of influences. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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De Gama’s route around the African continent. (Image Source: BBC)

1500s – The Spanish and Portuguese dominated the trade route through the Cape. They largely avoided settlement in the Cape, however, due to fear of storms and poor relations with the local community, the Khoekhoe people. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Spanish and Portuguese ships sailing near Table Bay, Cape Town circa 1500s. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1652 – Jan van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape on the 6th of April and began to establish a permanent supply base for the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The town was developed with a few guesthouses, taverns, streets, and the name “Cape Town” was established shortly after van Riebeeck left after his 10-year stay. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Jan van Riebeeck and ship’s crew arrive in the Cape. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1780s – French troops were stationed in Cape Town to defend the Cape from British attack. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Several buildings were constructed (in the Dutch style) during the boom in the 1780s. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1795 – British troops landed on the Cape Peninsula and occupied Cape Town. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

1814 – Battle of Waterloo. The Cape officially became a part of the British Empire. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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(Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1824 – British merchants who settled in Cape Town became a powerful and active middle class and started pushing liberal reform principles, such as the emancipation of slaves, liberalization of trade, participation in sport, infrastructure development, health care, literature, education, arts, sciences, and self-government. This desire to “modernize” Cape Town was not well received by the Afrikaners (of mostly Dutch descent). (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Art and culture was a part of the “modernization” movement. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1834 – Slaves were emancipated in Cape Town, although the Afrikaners preferred a slave-based economy. Afrikaners launched a counter-movement and many left the region to establish independent communities. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Many Afrikaners left the Cape in search of a new home. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1867 – Diamond mining boom, attracting many more immigrants into the city. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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(Image Source: http://www.jewellerynetasia.com)

1909 – National Convention of 1909 where an agreement of self-governance was established between the British and Afrikaners. Boundaries of the nation were established, Cape Town was named the legislative capital but the Executive branch would be based in Pretoria, South Africa. This reconciliation between the English and Afrikaners failed to account for Black and Coloureds’ preferences. The agreement shifted power to Pretoria and Johannesburg, where Afrikaners mostly resided. Durban was also considered a more profitable port than Cape Town due to its proximity to the Transvaal region. Since losing economic and political influence, Cape Town promoted itself as a cultural center (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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It came time for the end of British rule and government functions turned over to both British and Afrikaners in multiple locations within South Africa. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1918 – University of Cape Town was established (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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The University of Cape Town campus. (Image Source: http://www.surgsoc.org)

1923 – Urban Areas Act was passed. The city government enforced spatial segregation and closed the city off to black migrants. Overcrowding and informal townships were created in areas surrounding Cape Town. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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Urban planners cleared slums in the city and built townships outside the city to spatially divide the affluent from the poor. (Image Source: Roddy Bray, 2012)

1947 – The royal family visits from the United Kingdom. Their visit was well celebrated not only by English-speaking whites, but by coloureds, and blacks alike who identified more with the liberal regime of Britain since they believed they were treated better compared to the new conservative order controlled by the Afrikaners. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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The Royal Family visits Cape Town. (Image Source: http://www.stgeorgespark.nmmu.ac.za)

1948 – A government was elected committed to a policy of apartheid, a policy of universal segregation. (Roddy Bray, 2012)

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A “Whites Only” bench. (Image Source: http://www.capetowndailyphoto.com)

1954 – Cape Town International Airport was opened. Two international flights were initially offered: one direct flight to Britain and one indirect flight to Britain via Johannesburg. The airport now has several direct flights to destinations in Africa, Asia, and Europe. (Brickford-Smith et al., 1999)

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Modern-day Cape Town International Airport. (Image Source: http://www.voiceofsouthafrica.com)

1959 – Boycott movement launched by South African exiles in the United Kingdom, later named “Anti-Apartheid Movement.” Several economic sanctions were established, including consumer goods a freeze in foreign direct investment by Great Britain, and sporting, cultural and academic boycotts working to isolate South Africa until apartheid was lifted. (Michigan State University, 2014)

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British protests against the South African apartheid government. (Image Source: http://www.sahistory.org.za)

1970s – A post-Cold War crisis in global capitalism occurred, with slower rates of growth, high inflation, and recession around the world. (Reuss, 2014)

1970s and 80s – Neoliberalism came into prominence and increased pressure was placed on the South African apartheid government from outside and inside to implement more market-oriented economic policies.

1994 – Transfer of power from apartheid government to the African National Congress (ANC), and the Republic of South Africa transformed into a democracy. Some critics say that South Africa is still a “choiceless democracy” or a “low-intensity” democracy in socio-economic policy terms. (Bond, 2014)

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South African citizens line up waiting to vote in open elections in 1994. (Image Source: http://www.commongood.org.za)

1994 – South Africa’s Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) was established. The RDP is an integrated, coherent socio-economic policy framework. It seeks to mobilize all of South Africa’s people and the country’s resources toward the final eradication of apartheid and the building of a democratic, non-racial and non-sexist future (O’Malley, 2014). This equity-oriented policy was abandoned by the ANC in favor of a more neoliberal program, GEAR, a few years later (Mifaftab, 2007).

1999 – The Cape Town Partnership was founded. This organization is a public-private partnership that oversees the city improvement districts and develops spatial plans for the future city center. These urban revitalization strategies similar to those popularized by New York City. While its primary mission is to enhance the business climate in downtown Cape Town, it has expanded its mission to ensure that the social and economic regeneration of the Central City of Cape Town is inclusive, caring, sustainable, and to the benefit of the broader city region. (Cape Town Partnership, 2013). It has been criticized that the CIDs in Cape Town restructure urban space to serve the ideal of a world class city integrated into the global economy, at the cost of the city’s social and spatial integration (Mifaftab, 2007).

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The Cape Town Partnership logo. (Image Source: Cape Town Partnership, 2013)

2006 – South Africa’s Growth, Employment, and Redistributions (GEAR) economic policy. GEAR prescribes growth by liberalizing international trade, and relying on market mechanisms for state restructuring and integration into the global economy. The restructuring of municipal government promoted developmental local government through integrated development plans and unified the city’s tax base through a unified municipal government, Unicity (Cape Town city government); but the restructuring also promoted municipal operations as a private business. (Mifaftab, 2007)

2009 – Silicon Cape Initiative founded. It is a non-profit, private sector community organization. Its vision is to establish an ecosystem in the Western Cape that attracts and brings together local and foreign investors, technical talent and entrepreneurs so as to foster the creation and growth of world-class IP startup companies that are able to compete with other similar hubs around the world. (Silicon Cape Initiative, 2014)

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Cape Town, the “Silicon Valley” of South Africa. (Image Source: Silicon Cape Initiative, 2014)

2009 – City of Cape Town created an Anti-Land Invasion Unit to stop people attempting to illegally occupy land. The unit demolishes illegal shacks and evicts those that attempted to grab land in the city. (Pollack, 2009)

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Law enforcement officers evicting unlawful settlements in Cape Town. (Image Source: Pollack, 2009)

2010 – South Africa’s New Economic Growth Path (NEGP) economic policy launched. The new plan increases strategic partnerships between the South African government and the private sector. Five key physical and social infrastructure areas are targeted: energy, transport, communication, water, and housing. (The Republic of South Africa, 2010)

2010 – FIFA World Cup. The large, world event spurred regional governance collaboration designed to improve overall productivity and improve the connection of global flows of both people and markets. (Brookings Institution, 2013)

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The World Cup stadium built in Cape Town. (Image Source: http://www.theguardian.com)

 

References

Brickford-Smith, V, E. Van Heyningen, and N. Worden. (1999). Cape Town in the Twentieth Century: An Illustrated Social History. David Philip Publishers: Claremont, South Africa.

Bond, P. (2014). South Africa- Mandela and the transition to neo-liberal elitism. Africa – News and Analysis. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://africajournalismtheworld.com/2014/02/06/south-africa-mandela-and-the-transition-to-neo-liberal-elitism/.

Brookings Institution. (2013). Cape Town. The 10 Traits of Globally Fluent Metro Areas. Global Cities Initiative. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from www.brookings.edu.

Cape Town Partnership. (2013). Our Purpose. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://www.capetownpartnership.co.za/about/our-purpose/.

Mifaftab, F. (2007). Governing Post Apartheid Spatiality: Implementing City Improvement Districts in Cape Town. Antipode.

Michigan State University. (2014). Anti-Apartheid Movement. African Activist. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://africanactivist.msu.edu/organization.php?name=Anti-Apartheid+Movement.

O’Malley, P. (2014). The Reconstruction and Development Programme. www.NelsonMandela.org.

Pollack, M. (2009). City’s anti-land invasion unit to stop land grabs. City of Cape Town. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/Citysantilandinvasionunittostoplandgrabs.aspx.  

Reuss, A. (2014). What can the crisis of U.S. Capitalism in the 1970s teach us about the current crisis and its possible outcomes? Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2009/1109reuss.html.

Roddy Bray. (2012). Roddy Bray, 2012. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from www.capetown.at/heritage/index.htm.

Silicon Cape Initiative. (2014). About. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://www.siliconcape.com/.

The Republic of South Africa. (2014). The New Growth Path. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from www.gov.za/documents/.

Week 13 – I Was a Teenage “Concerned Westerner”

Reading and reflecting on this week’s articles left me with some personal thoughts concerning the cultural changes surrounding globalizing processes and, more specifically, how we interpret them. In his Cultural Imperialism article, John Tomlinson brings up the concept of how we as people raised in the west understand the idea of cultural adaptation through the lens of the 80’s sitcom Dallas. Specifically, he associates many of those concerned with the creeping reach of capitalism can be classified as “tourists” in that their observation of capitalist homogenization is completely based upon their western experience and privilege to even have the ability to see these forces play out in different parts of the world.

He professes that what is largely forgotten amongst the western tourists in this exchange is the fact that the western perception of culture and media is not how people of cultures outside of that reference frame view these cultural forms. Just like our perceptions of culture are informed by our own cultural identity, the same goes for those not of the western frame. Therefore, no matter how well intentioned our concern may be surrounding capitalism and cultural homogenization, it is not our place however to speak for those people whose identity we are not apart of and dictate what is best for the advancement of their cultural spaces. This is key for me in thinking on what I read because of my concern for the existence and validation of cultures not directly connected with capitalism.

By taking the view that, cultural homogenization is bad in all instances and that culture should be maintained and preserved at all costs, we ultimately go directly against principles associated with social justice movements generally. Namely, this concerns not talking over groups of people but instead supporting and allowing people the chance to make their own decision and develop solutions themselves. When Tomlinson says that “ cultural autonomy can only apply to agents and cultures are not agents,” what he’s is getting at is the fact that people of all backgrounds and cultures are able to make reasoned and impassioned decisions about what cultural elements to homogenize versus what elements to preserve. Additionally, this concept of autonomy goes beyond homogenization versus preservation but can be applied to other societal elements. The Gulabi Gang case brought up in class is a great example of this concept at work in the realm of human rights. Instead of finding solutions through the traditional western conception of laws and legal rights, the women of this rural village have taken a grassroots approach to women’s rights. Although very different from developed world approaches, it is nevertheless valid.

That was my personal thought from this week’s readings, to always remember it’s about the people and their ability to make their own reasoned cultural decisions, not the culture itself

 

Cultural Change

Routledge discusses the concept of “development;” it is interpreted to mean progress and advancement and based on a linear theory of progress and evolution. As we have previously discussed in class, the global South is at a disadvantage participating in the world economy. Routeledge points out two main reasons for this: the South does not have the same conditions that enabled the West to industrialize, as there is less opportunity for domination and exploitation of other nations’ resources. The South also has been integrated into the world economy with the role of providing raw materials, and this role is hard to change once it has been established (Routledge). This has put them in a dependent relationship with the West and the South remains vulnerable.

            This “development” in developing countries brings Western cultural influences, such as media, goods, and services, but not necessarily homogenization. Tomlinson and Jackson both discuss how although the Western influences exist, they are interpreted differently based on local cultures. The empirical study on media imperialism, based on TV viewing of the American show Dallas, concluded that different ethnic groups brought their own values to a judgment of the program’s values (Tomlinson). The authors assume that all cultures will generate their own set of basic attitudes on issues like wealth and happiness. Additionally, Jackson notes how there are variations in the consumption of even the most globalized brands. This makes me think about how Coca Cola is probably advertised differently in various countries and may have varying consumption cultures surrounding it. “Development” has caused cultural influences, but Tomlinson and Jackson agree that globalization does not lead to homogenization.

            In response to some of the resulting problems from development and participation in the world economy, some people have pushed back through social movements. Routledge classifies social movements as “defensive or assertive (or both) in character, attempting to resist and reshape the development project” (p. 276). There is some debate about the extent technology can help facilitate social movements. Many people give credit to social media for the political protests in Egypt. Shirky gives credit to text messaging that organized the protest against the corrupt Filipino present’s release. Gladwell critiques this credit given to social media and identifies only “weak-ties” that form between people in a large network. People are found to be less committed to the cause to face adversity or stick with it long-term unless they have “strong-ties,” others they know that are also committed. I agree with Gladwell that many social movements require a centralized framework, rather than a network, with dedicated participants. But technology can certainly be used as a tool to organize!

            Developed countries (the U.S. in particular) are encouraging open access to information and the Internet in other countries. In a way, countries are interfering with other countries’ decisions about governing.  I believe this is another form of media and cultural imperialism, once the floodgates to the U.S.-dominated (and other Western nations) worldwide web are open, there may be more opportunities to democratize and modernize these nations. I personally believe open access to information is beneficial to people and contributes to human rights, but it will also benefit those developing forces that want to take hold of the nation.

Week 13: Globalization and Cultural Change

How does globalization contribute to cultural change? Are the forces of globalization causing the homogenization of local cultures and patterns of consumption? How should we evaluate our critical perspectives as Westerners?

The promotion of Western values by transnational corporations and the mass media have led a number of critics to conclude that globalization contributes to the homogenization of worldwide cultures. Technological advances in communications and production have compressed space and time in a way that promotes what Knox calls the “material culture”—a particular type of consumerism-based lifestyle and worldview expressed through commercials, movies, television, and the internet.

Both Tomlinson and Jackson, at least to a certain extent, questioned the extent of homogenization critique. They argue that local cultures are far more complex and nuanced in how they interpret and respond to the cultural and economic forces of globalization, though they address different topics. Whereas Tomlinson focuses his critique on cultural responses to globalization and the “concerned” Western critic, Jackson focuses on the geographies of consumption, which includes cultural and economic reflections of global forces.

Rather than the oversimplified, often static interpretation of consumption, Jackson believes that consumption is an “intensely practical activity”—part of our everyday cultural engagement with ideas and meanings in addition to the purchase and use of material goods. Consumption is a broadly-defined action that is deeply embedded in our family and social ties, gender and generational ideologies, and socioeconomic status. In other words, consumption patterns vary depending on who we are and where we’re located.

Jackson uses bananas, sugar, and soap to explain how these staple commodities illustrate the complex geographic, political and cultural connections and differences between first world consumers and third world producers. Using these examples, Jackson effectively illustrates that first world consumer demand profoundly affects how producer-countries respond to global demand. He also shows there is often a sharp disconnect between product and production. Even as something as simple as a banana is assigned a gendered identity through branding, which displaces the association with production (performed by poor laborers in distant countries) with positive brand reinforcement catered to the consuming culture. I thought Jackson’s idea that products are rebranded and reinterpreted with a degree of sensitivity for the consuming culture offered a compelling counterargument to the homogenizing interpretation of globalization.

Tomlinson, on the other hand, thinks that concerns about Western dominance and “invasion” of local cultures are misguided. Local cultures outside of the developed world actively interpret and respond to global cultural content in nuanced ways that reflect their own viewpoints and heritage. Rather than promoting the worst of capitalistic excess and immoral behavior, as one researcher feared, the American TV show Dallas evoked a wide range of interpretations across different cultural groups, with none being particularly enticed by this particular American export. Tomlinson also thinks that we should examine our own cultural standpoint as “concerned Western observers” fearful of the harmful cultural effects of globalization. Not every local culture sees the expansion of Western cultural values and influence as a threat, and Tomlinson cautions against making sweeping determinations about the positive or negative effects of cultural homogenization.

Week 12: Vulnerability and Bias

This week’s readings centered around two primary themes: 1) vulnerability and 2) systematic flaws baked into data collection and analysis that can lead to ill-informed policy decisions. The sharpening inequality between high- and low-wage earners, the new international division of labor, the erosion of national boundaries, and the dominance of the trans-nationalist capitalist class all factor into the increasing vulnerability of women, children, and physical geographies threatened by climate change impacts.

Christopherson shows how the increasing bifurcation of the global labor force affects women. Mirroring trends seen in the rest of the global workforce, women are increasingly differentiated from each other based on two things: 1) the region in which they work and reside; and 2) larger economic forces that, overall, offer more access to the labor force in some areas, but also largely keep women from equal pay or upward mobility. The cultural expectations and labor opportunities for women can vary widely depending on the region in question, which illustrates how local conditions mediate global forces differently. The values of the local ruling class—which may be part of the trans-nationalist capitalist class—communicate expectations about the role of women in relation to the workforce and the family. While women seem to have more access to labor markets worldwide, they are also exposed to greater risk at lower pay, as many opportunities are found in the volatile manufacturing sector.

In developed, wealthy countries, children are increasingly being indoctrinated as members of a consumer class through exposure to brands through global media, according to Katz (and Sklair). In poor countries, however, children are seen as workers—a source of cheap or free labor largely subservient to authority figures. At the center of this divergence is the new international division of labor and the global economic framework that sees children only as participants in the labor force. Reflecting the new geography of globalization, Katz shows how poor children in Sudan have much in common with poor children in New York City. Both groups share neglected spaces in which to develop into functioning members of society because capital largely doesn’t value this “softer” investment into future labor—whether it is a space for social play or education instead of work. The global capitalist structure leaves the working class and poor out of the economy entirely.

The sharpening inequality seen in the global economy exacerbates the public health to poor communities caused by climate change impacts. The global poor will disproportionately bear the costs of the developed world’s GHG emissions, despite their lighter environmental footprint. One critical question is how developing and poorer countries will respond to calls from heavy polluters to invest in more sustainable forms of urbanization.

As urban planners, we must strive to continuously communicate the value of public space accessible to all classes of children. The challenge is getting through to people who make decisions based solely on cost-benefit analyses. The World Health Organization offers an interesting graphic illustrating how ecosystems offer various services that are not valued by markets but are critically important to healthy human development and quality of life.

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We must also be vigilant for biases inherent in the data we use to support policy recommendations. Graham and Boyle’s piece illustrated the difficulty in capturing real-world phenomena involved with population growth, and Christopherson showed how biases present in the dominant culture can lead policy-makers to gain an inaccurate picture of a population’s vulnerability.